Ethereum download chain structure

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Viewed 7k times. How long does it take to download chain structure on Ethereum Mist wallet. Improve this question. Just wait until you come to block 4,, :p I'm currently at chain structure 19,, Looks like you are syncing the ropsten test network for a start. The main network has just over 4 million blocks.

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The Overflow Blog. Will chatbots ever live up to the hype? The Authorization Code grant in excruciating detail Part 2 of 2. Featured on Meta. Linked 6. Related 7. Retrieved 1 June Archived from the original on 22 June Archived from the original on 11 January Archived from the original on 18 March Retrieved 21 March Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 23 February Retrieved 21 February ISBN The infinite machine : how an army of crypto-hackers is building the next internet with Ethereum First ed.

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A slot is a chance for a block to be added to the Beacon Chain and shards. You can imagine that the Beacon Chain and shard chains are choreographed in lockstep. Every 12 seconds, one beacon chain block and 64 shard blocks are added when the system is running optimally. Validators do need to be roughly synchronized with time. A slot is like the block time, but slots can be empty.

Genesis blocks for the Beacon Chain and shards are at Slot 0. Validators are actively participating in the consensus of the Ethereum 2. Their incentives are discussed later in Staking Rewards and Penalties. A block proposer is a validator that has been pseudorandomly selected to build a block. Most of the time, validators are attesters that vote on beacon blocks and shard blocks. These votes are recorded in the Beacon Chain. The votes determine the head of the Beacon Chain, and the heads of shards.

At every epoch, a validator is pseudorandomly assigned to a slot and shard. The validator links the shard head to the beacon block for a slot. Attestations are broadcasted by validators in addition to blocks. Validators also police each other and are rewarded for reporting other validators that make conflicting votes, or propose multiple blocks.

The contents of the Beacon Chain is primarily a registry of validator addresses, the state of each validator, attestations, and links to shards. Validators are activated by the Beacon Chain and can transition to states, briefly described later in Beacon Chain Validator Activation and Lifecycle. Validators are virtual and are activated by stakers.

In PoW, users buy hardware to become miners. In Ethereum 2. It is clearer to associate stakers with a stake, and validators with a balance. For every 32 ETH staked, one validator is activated. Validators are executed by validator clients that make use of a beacon chain node. A beacon node has the functionality of following and reading the Beacon Chain. A validator client can implement beacon node functionality or make calls into beacon nodes.

One validator client can execute one or more validators. A crosslink is a reference in a beacon block to a shard block. A crosslink is how the Beacon Chain follows the head of a shard chain. As there are 64 shards, each beacon block can contain up to 64 crosslinks.

A beacon block might only have one crosslink, if at that slot, there were no proposed blocks for 63 of the shards. Crosslinks are planned for eth2 Phase 1 to root the shard chains into the Beacon Chain, serving as the base of the shard fork choice, shard chain finality, and for cross shard communication.

All shard chains are following the Beacon Chain at all times. A committee is a group of validators. For security, each slot in the Beacon Chain and each shard has committees of at least validators. The concept of a randomness beacon that emits random numbers for the public, lends its name to the Ethereum Beacon Chain. The sketch depicts a scenario with less than 8, validators, otherwise there would be at least two committees per slot. This Beacon Chain explainer focuses on beacon committees: the validators that serve the Beacon Chain.

A beacon committee is pseudorandomly assigned a shard to crosslink into a beacon block. There are no persistent committees. The committee responsible for crosslinking a shard block changes block-by-block. Shard committees that solely build shard chain blocks are a future topic. However, for a shard to communicate with other shards, it needs a beacon committee to crosslink it to a beacon block. The diagram is a combined depiction of what happened in three slots.

In Slot 1, a block is proposed and then attested to by two validators; one validator in Committee A was offline. The attestations and block at Slot 1 propagate the network and reach many validators. In Slot 2, a block is proposed and a validator in Committee B does not see it, thus it attests that the Beacon Chain head is the block at Slot 1.

Note this validator is different from the offline validator from Slot 1. A validator can only be in one committee per epoch. Typically, there are more than 8, validators: meaning more than one committee per slot. All committees are the same size, and have at least validators. The security probabilities decrease when there are less than 4, validators because committees would have less than validators.

At every epoch, validators are evenly divided across slots and then subdivided into committees of appropriate size. All of the validators from that slot attest to the Beacon Chain head. Each of the committees in that slot attempts to crosslink a particular shard. A shuffling algorithm scales up or down the number of committees per slot to get at least validators per committee.

As an example, assume 16, validators. The validators for Slot 1 are then subdivided into four committees and pseudorandomly assigned to shards. Assume that Shards 33, 55, 22, 11 are the shard assignments. In another committee, validators attempt to crosslink Shard Another validators attempt to crosslink Shard For Slot 2, the process repeats. The validators for Slot 2 are subdivided into four committees and pseudorandomly assigned to shards.

Assume that Shards 41, 20, 17, 15 are the shard assignments. All validators for Slot 2 attest their views of the Beacon Chain head at Slot 2. The committees attempt to crosslink Shards 41, 20, 17, The process repeats for the remaining slots in the epoch. Each validator has a slot when it can speak up, attest and crosslink.

At the end of the epoch, all 16, validators have had a chance to attest and crosslink. But so far the validator votes have been slot-specific rather than epoch-specific. All 16, validators have not voted on the same thing. A checkpoint is a block in the first slot of an epoch. If there is no such block, then the checkpoint is the preceding most recent block.

There is always one checkpoint block per epoch. A block can be the checkpoint for multiple epochs. Note Slot 65 to Slot are empty. The Epoch 2 checkpoint would have been the block at Slot Since the slot is missing, the Epoch 2 checkpoint is the previous block at Slot Epoch 3 is similar: Slot is empty, thus the previous block at Slot is the Epoch 3 checkpoint.

Epoch boundary blocks EBB are a term in some literature such as the Gasper paper , the source of the diagram above and a later one , and they can be considered synonymous with checkpoints. This vote is called a Casper FFG vote , and also includes a prior checkpoint, called the source.

In the diagram, a validator in Epoch 1 voted for a source checkpoint of the genesis block, and a target checkpoint of the block at Slot In Epoch 2, the same validator voted for the same checkpoints. However, all validators cast FFG votes for each epoch checkpoint. Pedagogically, suppose there are three active validators: two have a balance of 8 ETH, and a sole validator with a balance of 32 ETH.

The supermajority vote must contain the vote of the sole validator: although the other two validators may vote differently to the sole validator, they do not have enough balance to form the supermajority.

If a checkpoint B is justified and the checkpoint in the immediate next epoch becomes justified, then B becomes finalized. Typically, a checkpoint is finalized in two epochs, On average, a user transaction would be in a block in the middle of an epoch. Use cases can decide whether they need finality or an earlier safety threshold is sufficient. The epoch boundary block at Slot 96 is proposed and contains attestations for the Epoch 2 checkpoint.

This causes the justification of the Epoch 2 checkpoint, and thus the finality of the previously justified Epoch 1 checkpoint. The finality of Slot 32 immediately causes the finality of all blocks preceding it. When finalizing a checkpoint, there is no limit to the number of blocks that can be finalized. All the crosslinks contained in the beacon blocks from Slot 1 to Slot 32, would lead to the finality of the shard chains.

In other words, a shard block is finalized when it is crosslinked into a beacon block that is finalized. With the same illustration, here is a storyline that could have been observed from genesis. All the proposers from Slot 1 until Slot 63 propose a block, and these appear on-chain. The block at Slot 64 is proposed and it includes attestations for the Epoch 1 checkpoint. The block at Slot 96 is proposed and it includes attestations for the Epoch 2 checkpoint.

Justifying the Epoch 2 checkpoint finalizes the Epoch 1 checkpoint and all prior blocks. Here is another possible scenario. Consider only until Epoch 1. In this case, the checkpoint would have been justified before Epoch 2. A checkpoint can be justified in its current epoch, but its finalization requires at least the epoch after it. The justification of a block can sometimes finalize a block two or more epochs ago.

The Gasper paper discusses these cases. They are expected only in exceptional times of high latency, network partitions, or strong attacks. Finality reduces complexity with cross shard communications. Optimally, all validators submit one attestation per epoch. An attestation has 32 slot chances for inclusion on-chain.

This means a validator may have two attestations included on-chain in a single epoch. Validators are rewarded the most when their attestation is included on-chain at their assigned slot; later inclusion is a decaying reward. To give validators time to prepare, they are assigned to committees one epoch in advance. Proposers are only assigned to slots once the epoch starts. Nonetheless, secret leader election research aims to mitigate attacks or bribing of proposers.

Committees allow for the technical optimization of combining signatures from each attester into a single aggregate signature. In eth2 Phase 1, validators will also receive rewards for crosslinks. Attestations in finalized blocks are worth more. On the flip side, validators get penalties for not attesting or if they attest to blocks that are not finalized.

Before outlining less common penalties and rewards, you may want to know your downside risk in becoming a staker. The day example means that falling offline for a few days or weeks, is a much smaller penalty: dropping offline for 36 days would lose around 0. The Beacon Chain will manage the Casper Proof of Stake protocol for itself and all of the shard chains. The primary source of load on the Beacon Chain will be "attestations".

Attestations are availability votes for a shard block and, simultaneously, proof of stake votes for a beacon block. A sufficient number of attestations for the same shard block will create a "crosslink" which confirms the shard segment up to that shard block into the Beacon Chain. Finality, in very loose terms, means that once a particular operation has been done, it will forever be etched in history and nothing can revert that operation. All ether on the beacon chain in phase 0 will be from a one-way transaction to the deposit contract.

A deposit is made to this contract with transaction data indicating the validator the deposit is for. The deposit contract is watched by every validator on the network, who will submit the deposits to the beacon chain. After a validator public key reaches a balance of 32 ETH, it is registered as active validator and entered into queue for activation. Please note: this transfer to the deposit contract is only one-way, for phase 0 there is no way for the deposited eth to return to Eth1.

This is expected to change as part of phase 1. Once Phase 0 is complete, there will be two active Ethereum chains. During this phase, users will be able to send their ETH from the Eth1 chain to the Eth2 chain and become validators. These are currently being developed separately from the familiar suite of standard Ethereum clients Geth, Nethermind, Pantheon, et al.

Most of the teams are putting out periodic updates on their client development progress, and some of the teams are offering bounties to contributors to include more and more developers in building 2. You can contribute on Gitcoin grants here. On its own, the Beacon Chain might not seem particularly useful.

But, as the first component of Ethereum 2. Shard chains are the key to future scalability as they allow parallel transaction throughput and there will be 64 of them deployed in Phase 1 with the possibility of adding more over time as hardware scales. Phase 1 is primarily concerned with the construction, validity, and consensus on the data of these shard chains.

Phase 1 does not specify shard chain state execution or account balances. It'll be like a trial run for the sharding structure rather than an attempt to use shards to scale. The Beacon Chain will treat shard chain blocks as simple collections of bits with no structure or meaning. When the Beacon Chain block has been finalised, the corresponding shard block is considered finalised, and other shards know that they can rely on it for cross-shard transactions. Crosslinks are a set of signatures from a committee attesting to a block in a shard chain, which can be included into the Beacon Chain.

Crosslinks are the main means by which the Beacon Chain "learns about" the updated state of shard chains. Crosslinks also serve as infrastructure for asynchronous cross-shard communication. Phase 2 is where the functionality of the entire system will start to come together. Shard chains transition from simple data containers to a structured chain state and Smart Contracts will be reintroduced. Each shard will manage a virtual machine based on eWASM. We can expect familiar tools like truffle, solc, ganache ported to support eWASM before or during Phase 2.

Phase 2 also introduces the concept of 'Execution Environments EEs '.

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